Towards an interdisciplinary lifetime approach to multilingualism
From implicit assumptions to current evidence
Abstract
Many types of human behaviour, from scientific research to political decision-making, are based on implicit assumptions, considered to be so self-evident that they do not need any further justification. Such assumptions are particularly powerful in topics related to language: one of the most universal and fundamental human abilities and a prerequisite for social life, civilisation and culture. They become a driving force in the current debates about multilingualism. We identify three central assumptions underlying key controversies related to language: (a) the “limited resources model” assuming that learning languages has a detrimental effect on learning other subjects, (b) the notion that the “normal” state of human brain, mind and society is either monolingualism, or a strong dominance of a “mother tongue”, accompanied by less relevant “additional” languages, (c) the belief that the aim of language learning is a “native-like” proficiency and anything that fails to reach it has only limited value. Combining radically different academic backgrounds (education and cognitive neuroscience) and methodologies (qualitative and quantitative) we examine how these assumptions influence attitudes towards multilingualism. We evaluate the available empirical evidence and explore conceptual common ground, from the design of school curricula to the promotion of healthy ageing. We conclude that our perspectives complement each other, providing a valuable tool to inform language policy.
Bien des comportements humains, des recherches scientifiques aux prises de décisions politiques, sont basés sur des hypothèses implicites, considérées comme si évidentes en elles-mêmes qu’elles ne nécessitent donc pas de justifications supplémentaires. Ces hypothèses sont particulièrement pertinentes sur les sujets concernant le langage, capacité humaine la plus universelle et la plus fondamentale, et pré-requis pour la vie en société, la civilisation et la culture. Ces hypothèses jouent un rôle moteur dans les débats actuels sur le multilinguisme. On distingue trois hypothèses majeures subordonnées aux controverses clés liées au langage: a) “le modèle à ressources limitées” qui défend l’idée que l’apprentissage des langues se fait au détriment de l’apprentissage d’autres matières, b) la notion selon laquelle l’état “normal” du cerveau humain, de la pensée et de la société est, soit le monolinguisme, soit une forte domination de la langue maternelle, accompagnée de langues additionnelles moins pertinentes, c) la croyance selon laquelle le but de l’apprentissage des langues est d’atteindre le niveau de compétence d’un locuteur natif et que tout échec à y parvenir en limite la valeur. L’association de nos formations académiques (éducation et neurosciences cognitive) et de nos méthodologies (qualitative et quantitative) qui sont radicalement différentes, nous permettent d’examiner comment ces hypothèses influencent les nombreuses théories au sujet du multilinguisme. Nous analysons les résultats empiriques disponibles et explorons les points communs conceptuels depuis l’élaboration des programmes scolaires jusqu’à la sensibilisation au vieillissement sain. Nous en concluons que nos perspectives se complètent les unes les autres et offrent un précieux outil qui contribue au développement de la politique linguistique.
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Bilingualism Delays Age at Onset of Dementia, Independent of Education and Immigration Status
Neurology
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1938
44
Alladi, S., Bak, T.H., Mekala, S., Rajan, A., Chaudhuri, J.R., Mioshi, E., Krovvidi, R., Surampudi, B., Duggirala, V. and Kaul, S. (2016) ‘Impact of Bilingualism on Cognitive Outcome After Stroke’, Stroke 47: 258–61.
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Stroke
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61
Antón, E., Thierry, G., Goborov, A., Anasagasti, J. and Duñabeitia, J.A. (2016) ‘Testing Bilingual Educational Methods: A Plea to End the Language‐Mixing Taboo’, Language Learning 66: 29–50.
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Can Being Bilingual Affect the Onset of Dementia?
Future Neurology
9
101
3
Bak, T.H. and Chandran, S. (2012) ‘What Wires Together Dies Together: Verbs, Actions and Neurodegeneration in Motor Neuron Disease’, Cortex 48: 936–44.
What Wires Together Dies Together: Verbs, Actions and Neurodegeneration in Motor Neuron Disease
Cortex
48
936
44
Bak, T.H. and Mehmedbegovic, D. (2017) ‘Healthy Linguistic Diet: The Value of Linguistic Diversity and Language Learning across the Lifespan’, Journal of Languages, Society and Policy. Available at: http://www.meits.org/policy-papers/paper/healthy-linguistic-diet (accessed 18 October 2017).
Bak, T.H., Long, M.R., Vega-Mendoza, M. and Sorace, A. (2016) ‘Novelty, Challenge, and Practice: The Impact of Intensive Language Learning on Attentional Functions’, PloS one 11: e0153485.
Novelty, Challenge, and Practice: The Impact of Intensive Language Learning on Attentional Functions
PloS one
11
Bak, T.H., Nissan, J.J., Allerhand, M.M. and Deary, I.J. (2014a) ‘Does Bilingualism Influence Cognitive Aging?’, Annals of Neurology 75(6): 959–63.
Does Bilingualism Influence Cognitive Aging?
Annals of Neurology
75
959
63
Bak, T.H., Vega-Mendoza, M. and Sorace, A. (2014b) ‘Never Too Late? An Advantage on Tests of Auditory Attention Extends to Late Bilinguals’, Frontiers in Psychology 5: 485.
Never Too Late? An Advantage on Tests of Auditory Attention Extends to Late Bilinguals
Frontiers in Psychology
5
Balasubramanian, A. and Bose, A. (2016) ‘Manifestation of Agrammatism in Hindi-English Bilingual Aphasia’, Front. Psychol. Conference Abstract: 54th Annual Academy of Aphasia Meeting.
Manifestation of Agrammatism in Hindi-English Bilingual Aphasia
Bialystok, E. (1988) ‘Levels of Bilingualism and Levels of Linguistic Awareness’, Developmental Psychology 24: 560.
Levels of Bilingualism and Levels of Linguistic Awareness
Developmental Psychology
24
Bialystok, E. (2009) ‘Bilingualism: The Good, the Bad, and the Indifferent’, Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 12: 3–11.
Bilingualism: The Good, the Bad, and the Indifferent
Bilingualism: Language and Cognition
12
3
11
Blommaert, J., Creve, L. and Willaert, E. (2006) ‘On Being Declared Illiterate: Language-Ideological Disqualification in Dutch Classes for Immigrants in Belgium’, Language and Communication 26: 34–54.
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Language and Communication
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34
54
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Broer, T., Pickersgill, M. and Deary, I.J. (2016) ‘The Movement of Research from the Laboratory to the Living Room: A Case Study of Public Engagement with Cognitive Science’, Neuroethics 9: 159–71.
The Movement of Research from the Laboratory to the Living Room: A Case Study of Public Engagement with Cognitive Science
Neuroethics
9
159
71
Collier, V.P. and Thomas, W.P. (2007) ‘Predicting Second Language Academic Success in English Using the Prism Model’, International Handbook of English Language Teaching 333–48.
Predicting Second Language Academic Success in English Using the Prism Model
International Handbook of English Language Teaching
333
48
Cooke, M. (2008) ‘“What We Might Become”: The Lives, Aspirations, and Education of Young Migrants in the London Area’, Journal of Language Identity and Education 7(1): 22–40.
“What We Might Become”: The Lives, Aspirations, and Education of Young Migrants in the London Area
Journal of Language Identity and Education
7
22
40
Cooke, M., Bryers, D. and Winstanley, B. (2014) ‘Whose Integration?’, in D. Mallows (ed.), Language Issues in Migration and Integration: Perspectives from Teachers and Learners. London: British Council, 19–35.
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Language Issues in Migration and Integration: Perspectives from Teachers and Learners
19
35
Cummins, J. (1978) ‘Bilingualism and the Development of Metalinguistic Awareness’, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 9: 131–49.
Bilingualism and the Development of Metalinguistic Awareness
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology
9
131
49
Cummins, J. (1991) ‘Interdependence of First-and Second-Language Proficiency in Bilingual Children’, in E. Bialystock (ed.), Language Processing in Bilingual Children. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 70–89.
Interdependence of First-and Second-Language Proficiency in Bilingual Children
Language Processing in Bilingual Children
70
89
Cummins, J. (2000) Language, Power, and Pedagogy: Bilingual Children in the Crossfire. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
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de Bruin, A., Della Sala, S. and Bak, T.H. (2016) ‘The Effects of Language Use on Lexical Processing in Bilinguals’, Language, Cognition and Neuroscience 1–8.
The Effects of Language Use on Lexical Processing in Bilinguals
Language, Cognition and Neuroscience
1
8
European Commission (forthcoming) Rethinking Education. Interim Report.
Eurostats. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statisticsexplained/index.php/Foreign_language_learning_statistics (accessed 18 October 2017).
Eversley, J, Mehmedbegovic, D, Sanderson, A, Tinsley, T and Wiggins, D.R. (2010) Language Capital: Mapping the Languages of London’s School Children. London: IOE and CILT.
Language Capital: Mapping the Languages of London’s School Children
Eviatar, Z. and Ibrahim, R. (2000) ‘Bilingual is as Bilingual Does: Metalinguistic Abilities of Arabic-Speaking Children’, Applied Psycholinguistics 21: 451–71.
Bilingual is as Bilingual Does: Metalinguistic Abilities of Arabic-Speaking Children
Applied Psycholinguistics
21
451
71
Féart, C., Samieri, C., Rondeau, V., Amieva, H., Portet, F., Dartigues, J.-F., Scarmeas, N. and Barberger-Gateau, P. (2009) ‘Adherence to a Mediterranean Diet, Cognitive Decline, and Risk of Dementia’, Jama 302: 638–48.
Adherence to a Mediterranean Diet, Cognitive Decline, and Risk of Dementia
Jama
302
638
48
Freedman, M., Alladi, S., Chertkow, H., Bialystok, E., Craik, F.I., Phillips, N.A., Duggirala, V., Raju, S.B. and Bak, T.H. (2014) ‘Delaying Onset of Dementia: Are Two Languages Enough?’, Behavioural Neurology 2014: Article ID 808137, 1–8.
Delaying Onset of Dementia: Are Two Languages Enough?
Behavioural Neurology
1
8
Green, D.W. and Abutalebi, J. (2016) ‘Language Control and the Neuroanatomy of Bilingualism: In Praise of Variety’, Language, Cognition and Neuroscience 31: 340–4.
Language Control and the Neuroanatomy of Bilingualism: In Praise of Variety
Language, Cognition and Neuroscience
31
340
4
Hall, D., Griffiths, D., Haslam, L. and Wilkin, Y (2012) Assessing the Needs of Bilingual Pupils: Living in Two Languages. Abingdon: Routledge.
Assessing the Needs of Bilingual Pupils: Living in Two Languages
IOE (2009) The National Teaching Workforce for EAL Report. The London Digest, 5, IOE, London: IOE.
Kenner, C. (2004) ‘Living in Simultaneous Worlds: Difference and Integration in Bilingual Script-Learning’, International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 7: 43–61.
Living in Simultaneous Worlds: Difference and Integration in Bilingual Script-Learning
International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism
7
43
61
Li, C., Nuttall, R.L. and Zhao, S. (1999) ‘The Effect of Writing Chinese Characters on Success on the Water-Level Task’, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 30: 91–105.
The Effect of Writing Chinese Characters on Success on the Water-Level Task
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology
30
91
105
Mehmedbegovic, D. (2011) A Study in Attitudes to Minority Languages in England and Wales. Germany: Lambert Academic Publishing.
A Study in Attitudes to Minority Languages in England and Wales.
Mehmedbegovic, D., Skrandies, P., Byrne, N. and Harding-Esch, P. (2015) Multilingualism in London. LUCIDE City Report, Research Report, London: LSE.
Multilingualism in London
Mehmedbegovic, D. (forthcoming) ‘Engaging with Linguistic Diversity in Global Cities: Arguing for “Language Hierarchy Free” Policy and Practice in Education’, Open Linguistics Journal.
Engaging with Linguistic Diversity in Global Cities: Arguing for “Language Hierarchy Free” Policy and Practice in Education
Open Linguistics Journal.
Myles, F. (2017) ‘Learning Foreign Languages in Primary Schools: Is Younger Better?’, Journal of Languages, Society and Policy. Available at: http://www.meits.org/policy-papers/paper/healthy-linguistic-diet (accessed 18 October 2017).
Ozawa, M., Ninomiya, T., Ohara, T., Doi, Y., Uchida, K., Shirota, T., Yonemoto, K., Kitazono, T. and Kiyohara, Y. (2013) ‘Dietary Patterns and Risk of Dementia in an Elderly Japanese Population: The Hisayama Study’, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 97: 1076–82.
Dietary Patterns and Risk of Dementia in an Elderly Japanese Population: The Hisayama Study
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
97
1076
82
Peal, E. and Lambert, W.E. (1962) The Relation of Bilingualism to Intelligence. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied 76/1. Washington, USA.
The Relation of Bilingualism to Intelligence.
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