Endnotes

1.For examples, seeWilliam A. Douglass, Azúcar Amargo: Vida y Fortuna de los Cortadores de Caña Italianos y Vascos en la Australia Tropical,Servicio Editorial Universidad del País Vasco,, 1996;Michele Langfield, andPeta Roberts.Welsh Patagonians: The Australian Connection,Crossing Press,, 2005;Robert Mason, ‘Anarchism, Communism andHispanidad: Australian Spanish Migrants and the Civil War’, Immigrants and Minorities, vol.27, no.1, March2009, pp.29-50. Google Scholar

2.William A. Douglass, From Italy to Ingham: Italians in North Queensland,University of Queensland Press,, 1995. Google Scholar

3.For an important example, seeGianfranco Cresciani, Fascism, Anti-Fascism and Italians in Australia, 1922-1945,Australian National University Press,, 1980. Google Scholar

4.Diane Menghetti, The Red North: The Popular Front in North Queensland, Studies in North Queensland History, No. 3, History Department,James Cook University of North Queensland,, 1981. Google Scholar

5.The main exception has been published interviews with Italian women which prioritise the women’s sense of isolation and rarely address political views. For examples, seeElizabeth Weiss andAnna Maria Kahan-Guidi(eds)Give Me Strength = Forza e Coraggio: Italian Australian Women Speak: A Bilingual Collection, 2nded.,Women’s Redress Press,,New South Wales1990;Tonina Gucciardo-Masci andOriella Romanin.Someone’s Mother, Someone’s Wife: The Italo-Australian Woman’s Identity and Roles,Catholic Italian Renewal Centre,, Victoria, 1988. Google Scholar

6.List of Passengers Onboard theWakefieldon Arrival in Townsville, 12July1907, National Archives of Australia, Brisbane (hereafter NAA B), J721 Roll 3. Google Scholar

7.Robert Mason, Agitators and Patriots: Cultural and Political Identity in Queensland’s Spanish Communities, 1900-1975, PhD thesis, Department of History,University of Queensland, 2009, p.97. Google Scholar

8.List of Passengers Onboard theKwantu Maruon Departure from Chile, National Archives of Australia, Canberra (hereafter NAA C), A3 NT 1916-165. Google Scholar

9.Mason, Agitators and Patriots, p.89. Google Scholar

10. Census of the Commonwealth of Australia, 1921, Volume1, Tables 5 and 6, pp.839-847. Google Scholar

13.Jeremy Adelman, ‘State and Labour in Argentina: Port workers in Buenos Aires 1910-1921’, Journal of Latin American Studies, vol.25, no.1, 1993, p.76; For details on the anarchist presence in Bahía Blanca from 1906 to 1909, see ‘Anarchism and Anarcho-Syndicalism in South America’, Fanny Simon, Hispanic American Historical Review, vol.26, no.1, 1946, p.43. Google Scholar

14.For details on the Asturian political culture, seeSandie Holguín, Creating Spaniards: Culture and National Identity in Republican Spain,University of Wisconsin Press,, 2002, p.31. Google Scholar

16.José C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers: Spanish Immigrants in Buenos Aires, 1850-1930,University of California Press,, 1998, p.13. Google Scholar

17.Natalio R. Botana, El Orden Conservador: La Política Argentina entre 1880 y 1916, 5thed., Sudamericana, Buenos Aires, p.154. Google Scholar

18.Robert W. Kern, Red Years, Black Years: A Political History of Spanish Anarchism, 1911-1937,Institute for the Study of Human Issues,, 1978, p.4. Google Scholar

19.Colin M. Winston, Workers and the Right in Spain, 1900-1939,Princeton University Press,, 1985, p.102;César M. Lorenzo, Les Anarchistes Espagnols et le Pouvoir, 1868-1969,Editions du Seuil,, 1969, p.44. The week saw riots as the workers resisted government attempts to impose conscription, and directed their ire at vulnerable symbols of state oppression, such as churches. Google Scholar

20.Victor Alba, Catalonia: A Profile,Praeger Publishers,, 1975, p.98. Google Scholar

21.Chris Ealham, Class, Culture and Conflict in Barcelona, 1898-1937,Routledge,, 2004, p.33. Google Scholar

22.Mary Nash, cited in Martha A. Ackelsberg,‘The Popular Front: Women and the Politics of the Spanish Popular Front’, International Labor and Working-Class History, vol.30, Fall, 1986, p.4. Google Scholar

23.Mikhail Bakunin, cited in Sam Dolgoff (ed.), Bakunin on Anarchy: Selected Works by the Activist-Founder of World Anarchism,Allen and Unwin,, 1971, p.76. Google Scholar

24.Roberto P. Korzeniewicz, ‘The Labour Movement and the State in Argentina’, Bulletin of Latin American Research, vol.8, no.1(1989), p.25. Google Scholar

25.Temma E. Kaplan, ‘Spanish Anarchism and Women’s Liberation’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol.6, no.2, 1971, pp.101-110. Google Scholar

26.Kirwin Shaffer, ‘The Radical Muse: Women and Anarchism in Early Twentieth-Century Cuba’, Cuban Studies, vol.34, no.1, 2003, p.145. Google Scholar

27.Frances Lannon, ‘Women and Images of Women in the Spanish Civil War’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, vol.6, no.1, 1991, p.220. Google Scholar

28.Martha A. Ackelsberg, ‘“Separate and Equal”? Mujeres Libres and Anarchist Strategy for Women’s Emancipation’, Feminist Studies, vol.11, no.1, Spring1985, p.64. Google Scholar

29.Caroline Wright, ‘Gender Awareness in Migration Theory’, inKatie Willis andBrenda Yeoh(eds), Gender and Migration,Edward Elgar,, 2000, p.16. Google Scholar

31.Peter de Shazo, ‘The Valparaíso Maritime Strike of 1903 and the Development of a Revolutionary Labor Movement in Chile’, Journal of Latin American Studies, vol.11, no.1, May1979, p.146. Google Scholar

32.Emilio Duran Memoirs(hereafter EDM), Robert Mason Collection (hereafter RMC), p.12. Google Scholar

33.Marie de Lepervanche, ‘Working for the Man: Migrant Women and Multiculturalism’, inKay Saunders andRobert Evans(eds), Gender Relations in Australia: Domination and Negotiation,Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,, 1992, p.90. Google Scholar

34.EDM, RMC, p.6. Google Scholar

35.Michele Langfield, ‘Filching the Argentine Colonists: The Encouragement of Patagonians to the Northern Territory in the Early Twentieth Century’, Journal of Northern Territory History, no.13, 2002, p.35; Francisco Netri to the Minister of State for Commerce, 22 April 1915, NAA C, A2 1916-1711. Google Scholar

37.EDM, RMC, p.21. Google Scholar

38.‘Report Upon the Argentine Immigration to the Northern Territory of Australia’, translation of original complaint by Eduardo F. Molina, NAA C, A3 NT 1916-48; Investigating Officer of Department of External Affairs to Spanish Consul, 9 July 1915, NAA C, A3 1915-4577. Google Scholar

39.EDM, RMC, p.21. Google Scholar

40.‘Report Upon the Argentine Immigration to the Northern Territory of Australia’, translation of original complaint by Eduardo F. Molina, NAA C, A3 NT 1916-48. Google Scholar

41.Spanish Consul to Minister of External Affairs, 13January1916, NAA C, A3 NT 1916-503; Commonwealth Railways to Department of External Affairs, 28 January 1916, NAA C, A3 NT 1916-503. Google Scholar

42.EDM, RMC, p.28. Google Scholar

43.Department of External Affairs to King O’Malley, Minister of Home Affairs, 1December1915, NAA C, A3 NT1916-287. Google Scholar

44.EDM, RMC, p.41. Google Scholar

45.EDM, RMC, p.58. Google Scholar

46.Ibid., p.53. Such comments demonstrate the importance of the Hispanic framework, referencing the complex racial relations of the Hispanic Americas. Google Scholar

47.Ibid., p.61. Google Scholar

48.Investigation Branch to Home and Territories Department, 16February1923, Mackay, NAA C, A435 1946-4-6645; Frank Cain, ‘The Industrial Workers of the World: Aspects of its suppression in Australia, 1916-1919’, Labour History, no. 42, 1982, p. 60; Report by Boyland of Waterside Workers’ Federation, undated, Innisfail, Queensland State Archives (hereafter QSA), RSI 13214-1-586. Google Scholar

49.Douglass, Azúcar Amargo, p.148. Google Scholar

50.Ray Jordana, interview with Prof. Alan Frost, Innisfail, 1984, tape one, by kind consent of Prof. Alan Frost. For details of one woman’s legal battles to extract support from her husband, see Innisfail Bench Records and Summons Book, 1921-29, QSA, RSI-1120; Nominal role of Spanish Aliens Resident in the State of Queensland as at 9 March 1943, NAA B, BP242-1 Q30582 (part 4). Google Scholar

51.‘Memorial de un Obrero: Costumbres de los españoles, en el Norte de Queensland (Australia)’,S. Torrents,James Cook University, Special Collection (hereafter JCU-SC), ST 5-3. Google Scholar

52.Judith Keene, ‘“The Word Makes the Man”: A Catalan Anarchist Autodidact in the Australian Bush’, Australian Journal of Politics and History, vol.47, no.3, 2001, p.314. Google Scholar

53.Maria Trapp andVince Cuartero, interview with author, 31August2007, Innisfail, RMC. Google Scholar

54.Police List of those receivingCultura Proletaria, 21November1940, NAA B, BP242-1 Q25027; Diane Menghetti,‘North Queensland, Anti-Fascism and the Spanish Civil War’, Labour History, no.42, 1982, p.71. Google Scholar

55.Ramon Ribes, interview with author, 27November2004, Mossman, RMC. Google Scholar

56.‘Cuento: El Honor en la familia’, Torrents, unnamed paper, 20 February 1925, JCU-SC, ST 5-18. Google Scholar

57.Dorothy Jones, Hurricane Lamps and Blue Umbrellas: A History of the Shire of Johnstone to 1973, G.K. Bolton, Cairns, 1973, 301; EDM, RMC, 65. Google Scholar

62.Dolores Larrazabal, interview with author, 21June2007, Townsville, RMC. Google Scholar

63.Police Report, Mackay, 18March1940, QSA, RSI 13214-3-46. Google Scholar

64.Holguín, Creating Spaniards, p.31;Simon, ‘Anarchism and Anarcho-Syndicalism in South America’, p.42. Google Scholar

65.EDM, RMC, p.112. Google Scholar

66.Ibid., p.110. Google Scholar

68.Gallego, interview with Diane Menghetti, North Queensland Oral History Project (hereafter NQOP). Google Scholar

69.Eliseo Zamora, interview with Amirah Inglis, Tully, undated, NBAC, Q47-2. Google Scholar

70.Celia Gallego, interview with Diane Menghetti, 1976, NQOP. For further details on women’s exposure to political debates, seeJudith Keene, ‘Strange Bedfellows: Feminists, Catholics and Anticlericals in the Enfranchisement of Spanish Women’, Australian Feminist Studies, vol.17, no.38, 2002, p.167;Celia Gallego, interview with Amirah Inglis, undated, NBAC, Q47-3. Google Scholar

71.‘Australia: A los Camaradas de Francia y de España’,Trinidad Garcia, 1936, unnamed paper, JCUSC, ST 5-18. Google Scholar

72.‘They Shall Not Pass: Spanish Patriots Write While Bombs Fall’, 30October1937, North Queensland Guardian, p.1. Google Scholar

73.Ackelsberg, ‘The Popular Front’, p.8. Google Scholar

74.For details, seeAmirah Inglis, Australians in the Spanish Civil War,Allen and Unwin,, 1987;Menghetti, The Red North. Google Scholar

75.Nettie Palmer Diary, 11November1936, NLA, 1174-16-18; Nettie Palmer Diary, 7 April 1937, NLA, 1174-16-19. Google Scholar

76.Identity card, Jack Garcia, Republican Armed Forces, NBAC, Q47-4; Alien registration application, NAA B, BP4-3 Spanish Plaza A; Alien registration application, NAA B, BP4-3 Spanish Sala R; Len Fox and Nettie Palmer, Australians in Spain,Current Book Distributors,, 1948, p.28. Google Scholar

77.‘South Johnstone: Monthly Meeting of the AWU’, 12August1938, North Queensland Guardian, p.6. Google Scholar

78.For more details, seeAckelsberg, ‘The Popular Front’, p.8;Kaplan, ‘Spanish Anarchism and Women’s Liberation’, p.106. Google Scholar

79.Marta Iniguez de Heredia, ‘History and Actuality of Anarcha-feminism: Lessons from Spain’, Lilith, vol.16, 2007. Available athttp://lilith.org.au/the-journal/lilith-16-2007/article/historyand-actuality-of-anarcha-feminism/accessed June 2010. Google Scholar

81.‘Desde Australia’, Torrents, undated, Cultura Proletaria, JCU-SC, ST 5-17. Google Scholar

82.‘Australia’, Torrents, undated, Cultura Proletaria, JCU-SC 5-13, ST 5-18. Google Scholar

83.‘Rise of Spanish Communist Party’,L. Sharkey, Workers’ Weekly, 16July1937;‘El Partido Comunista nos llevara a la catastrophe’, 1937, unnamed paper, JCU-SC, ST 5-17. Google Scholar

85.Gina Herrmann, ‘Voices of the Vanquished: Leftist women and the Spanish Civil War’, Journal of Spanish Cultural Studies, vol.4, no.1, 2003, p.12;Mercedes Yusta Rodrigo, ‘The Mobilization of Women in Exile: The Case of the Unión de mujeres antifascistas españolas in France (1944-1950)’, Journal of Spanish Cultural Studies, vol.6, no.1, 2005, p.44. Google Scholar

86.Innisfail Police Station to Criminal Investigation Branch, 4January1941, NAA B, BP242-1 Q25027. Google Scholar

 Google Scholar

 Google Scholar

 Google Scholar

 Google Scholar

 Google Scholar

 Google Scholar

 Google Scholar

 Google Scholar

 Google Scholar

 Google Scholar

 Google Scholar

 Google Scholar