Footnotes
1.For accounts of public/private relationships in Australia during the twentieth century, see:Brian W. Head, ed., State and Economy in Australia(:Oxford University Press, 1983);Noel G. Butlin,Alan Barnard andJonathan J. Pincus, Government and Capitalism: Public and Private Choice in Twentieth Century Australia(:Allen and Unwin, 1982).
2.John F. Wilson, “The Motives for Gas Nationalisation: Practicality or Ideology?”inThe Political Economy of Nationalisation in Britain, 1920–1950, eds.Robert Millward andJohn Singleton(:Cambridge University Press, 1995), 12–16. On Australia, seeNoel G. Butlin, “Colonial Socialism”inThe State and Economic Growth, ed.Hugh G. J Aitken, (:Social Science Research Council, 1959), 26–78.
3.David Schap, Municipal Ownership in the Electric Utility Industry: A Centennial View(:Praeger, Special Studies, 1986).
6.The most notable area in which this occurred was in the case of the government’s failure to create a government owned iron and steel company:Malcolm Abbott, “The Labor Party and the Proposal to Nationalise the Iron and Steel Industry,” Labour History, no. 70 (May1996):115–30.
7.For the history of AGL, seeRosemary Broomham, First Light: 150 Years of Gas(:Hale and Iremonger, 1987). For the gas supply industry in South Australia, seePeter F. Donovan andNoreen Kirkman, The Unquenchable Flame: The South Australian Gas Company 1961–1986(:Wakefield Press, 1986). For the gas supply industry in Victoria, seeRay Proudley, Circle of Influence: A History of the Gas Industry in Victoria(:Hargreen Publishing, 1987).
8.Raymond Markey, The Making of the Labor Party in New South Wales 1880–1900(:University of New South Wales Press, 1988).G. N. Freudenberg, Cause for Power: The Official History of the New South Wales Branch of the Australian Labor Party(:Pluto Press, 1991).N. Dyrenfurth, Heroes & Villians: The Rise and Fall of the Early Labor Party(:Australian Scholarly Publishing, 2011).Ross McMullin, The Light on the Hill: The Australian Labor Party, 1891–1991(:Oxford University Press, 1992).
9.Robert Murray, Fuels Rush in: Oil and Gas in Australia(:Macmillan, 1972).
10.Malcolm Abbott, “The Organization, Ownership and Performance of Privately Owned Utilities: The Case of Australia’s Manufactured Gas Supply Industry,” Management and Organizational History 7, no. 2(2012):75–93.
11.N. Economides, “The Economics of Networks,” International Journal of Industrial Organization 14(1995):673–99.
12.D. A. Chatterton, “State Control of Public Utilities in the Nineteenth Century: The London Gas Industry,” Business History 14(1972):166–78;D. Matthews, “Laissez-Faire and the London Gas Industry in the Nineteenth Century: Another Look,” Economic History Review 39(1986):244–63;R. Millward andR. Ward, “From Private to Public Ownership of Gas Undertakings in England and Wales 1851–1947: Chronology Incidence and Causes,” Business History 35, no. 2(1993):1–21.
13.J. Foreman-Peck andR. Millward, Public and Private Ownership of British industry, 1820–1990(:Clarendon Press, 1994).Millward andWard, “From Private to Public.”
14.Malcolm Falkus, “The British Gas Industry before 1850,” Economic History Review 20(1967):494–508.
15.R. Millward, “The Market Behaviour of Local Utilities in the Pre-World War I Britain: The Case of Gas,” Economic History Review 44(1991):102–27.R. Millward,P. A. Johnson,A. Offer,S. Ogilvie andG. Toniolo, Public and Private Enterprise: Energy, Telecommunications and Transport, 1830–1990(:Cambridge University Press, 2005).R. J. Rowlinson, “The Regulation of the Gas Industry in the Early Nineteenth Century, 1800–1860” (PhD diss., Linacre College, Oxford University, 1984).
16.The first municipal gasworks in Britain was in Manchester in 1817. In other countries, municipal gasworks were established at an early date in Germany (Dresden1840), and the Netherlands (Leiden1848). In a range of Western European countries such as Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany, gasworks in the nineteenth century were largely taken over by local government.P. A. Toninelli, The Rise and Fall of State Owned Enterprise in the Western World(:Cambridge University Press, 2000);J. J. van Zanden, “The Netherlands: The History of an Empty Box?”inEuropean Industrial Policy: The Twentieth Century Experience, ed.J. Foreman-Peck andG. Federico(:Oxford University Press, 1999), 177–93;J. Foreman-Peck andG. Federico, “European Industrial Policy: An Overview,”inForeman-Peck andFederico, European Industrial Policy, 426–60.
17.Local government ownership of gasworks varied in intensity across the United States. In 1910, for instance, almost ten per cent of gas companies were local government owned, the largest numbers being in states like Iowa, Minnesota and Wisconsin.W. Troesken, “The Sources of Public Ownership: Historical Evidence from the Gas Industry,” Journal of Law, Economics and Organization 13, (1997):1–25.
18.See for instanceMillward et. al., Public and Private Enterprise;Millward, “The Market Behaviour”;Millward andWard, “From Private to Public”;Wilson, “The Motives for Gas Nationalisation,” 12–16.
19.W. Troesken, “The Sources of Public Ownership.”
20.B. Levy andP. T. Spiller, “The Institutional Foundations of Regulatory Commitment: A Comparative Analysis of Telecommunications Regulation”, Journal of Law, Economics and Organization 10, no. 2(1994):201–46.
21.Troesken, “The Sources of Public Ownership.”
22.Schap, Municipal Ownership.
23.Leslie Tomory, Progressive Enlightenment: The Origins of the Gaslight Industry, 1780–1820(:The MIT Press, 2012);Millward, et. al., Public and Private Enterprise;Troesken, “The Sources of Public Ownership.”
24.Because of falling material and capital costs as well as improvements in reducing gas wastage, costs and prices of gas tended to fall in many jurisdictions in the second half of the nineteenth century;Matthews, “Laissez-Faire and the London Gas Industry.”
25.Troesken, “The Sources of Public Ownership”;C. Castaneda, Invisible Fuel: Manufactured and Natural Gas in America, 1800–2000(:Twayne Publishers, 1999), 80–81.
26.Broomham, First Light.
27.Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics (CBCS), “Census of Melbourne Kitchens 31 December 1927,”inLabour Report 1927(:CBCS, 1927).Metropolitan Gas Company, Jubilee, 1878–1928: An Historical Sketch(:Metropolitan Gas Company, 1928).Broomham, First Light, 86.
28.Broomham, First Light, 86.
29. “Census of Melbourne Kitchens 31 December 1927”.Metropolitan Gas Company, Jubilee.
30.CBCS, Labour and Industrial Branch, Expenditure on Living in the Commonwealth, Report no. 4 (:CBCS, 1913), 21.
31.Noel G. Butlin, Australian Domestic Product, Investment and Foreign Borrowing 1861–1938/39(:Cambridge University Press, 1962), 454;Ian W. McLean, “Consumer Prices and Expenditure Patterns in Australia 1850–1914,” Australian Economic History Review 39(1999):22–23.
32.CBCS, Expenditure on Living, 21.
33. Official Year Book of New South Wales(:Government Printer, 1913), 898.
34.See for instanceCBCS, Expenditure on Living.
35.Robert Millward, “The 1940s Nationalizations in Britain: Means to an End or the Means of Production?” Economic History Review 50(1997):209–34;Robert Millward, “State Enterprise in Britain in the Twentieth Century,”inThe Rise and Fall of State-Owned Enterprise in the Western World, ed.Pier A. Toninelli(:Cambridge University Press, 2000).
36.Stuart Macintyre, “Australian Labor Party,”inThe Oxford Companion to Australian History, ed.Graeme Davidson,John Hirst andStuart Macintyre(:Oxford University Press, 1998), 48–49.
37.Robert Noel Ebbels, The Australian Labour Movement 1907–1950(:Platform of the Political Labour League of New South Wales, 1960).
38. The Worker, 1 February1897.
39.Jim Hagan andKen Turner, A History of the Labor Party in New South Wales, 1891–1991(:Longman Cheshire, 1991).Michael Hogan, Labor Pains: Early Conference and Executive Reports of the Labor Party in New South Wales(:Federation Press, 2006).
40.Hogan, Labor Pains, 409.Herbert Vere Evatt, Australian Labor Leader: The Story of W. A. Holman and the Labour Movement(:Angus and Robertson, 1940), ch. 26.
41. New South Wales Political Labor League, untitled pamphlet(:The Worker Print, 1913), 15.
43.Bede Nairn, “Holman, William Arthur (1871–1934),” Australian Dictionary of Biography(hereafter ADB),National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, accessed July 2014,http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/holman-william-arthur-6713/text11589.
44. The Worker, 20 February1897.
45.Evatt, Australian Labor Leader, 122.
46. Sydney Morning Herald, 4 April1906, 9; 11 May1905.
47.Hogan, Labor Pains.
48.Australian Labor Party (ALP), Official Report of the Second Political Labour Conference(:ALP, 1902).
49.ALP, Official Report of the Third Political Labour Conference(:ALP, 1905).
50.See for instance his 1906 election policy speech, Sydney Morning Herald, 8 October1906, 6;G. Sawer, Australian Politics and Law, 1901–1929(:Melbourne University Press, 1956), 62.
51. The Worker, 9 March1922, 24.
52. The Advertiser, 13 June1922, 6.
53.Australian Gaslight Company, Annual Report(:Australian Gaslight Company, 1913), 1. In New South Wales, the Labor Party never proposed taking over the small, regional-based, local council-owned gasworks. Its attention was on the mainly Sydney-based, private gas companies. Some local suburban councils were unhappy about the conduct of the gas supply contracts they had with the private companies and for this reason supported regulation (but not nationalisation).The Sun, 31 January1911; 25 August1911.
54. Sydney Morning Herald, 1 October1910.
55.Ibid., 22 April1910.
56.John M. Ward, “Wade, Sir Charles Gregory (1863–1922),”
ADB, accessed July 2014,http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/wade-sir-charles-gregory-8938/text15707.
57.Bede Nairn, “McGowen, James Sinclair (1855–1922),”
ADB, accessed July 2014,http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/mcgowen-james-sinclair-7360/text12785.
59.The 1912 Act also made provision for the prescription and testing of the purity, power, illumination and pressure of gas, as well as the testing of gas meters. For an account of the origins of the gas regulation regime in New South Wales, see:Malcolm Abbott, “The Motivation and Effectiveness of Gas Industry Economic Regulation in New South Wales, 1912–39,” Australian Economic History Review 53, no. 2(2013):167–86.
60.In Britain, legislative controls on prices and dividends had been written into the early Gas Acts for London, Nottingham, Oxford, Worchester and Bristol in 1812–19;Falkus, “The British Gas Industry”;Tomory, Progressive Enlightenment.
61. Official Year Book of New South Wales(1916).
62.Evatt, Australian Labour Leader.
64.Government industrial tribunals had operated in New South Wales throughout the 1890s and 1900s;Official Year Book of New South Wales(1913):911–12.
65.Ibid., 914.
66.New South Wales Parliamentary Debates(hereafterNSW PD), Legislative Assembly 46(28 August1912):768.
67. The Sun, 31 January1911; 25 August1911.
68. Evening News, 13 August1912;The Sun, 25 August1911
69.Bede Nairn, “Carmichael, Ambrose Campbell (1866–1953),”
ADB, accessed July2014,http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/carmichael-ambrose-campbell-5506/text9369.
70. NSW PD, Legislative Assembly 46(28 August1912):768.
71.Bede Nairn andNan Phillips, “Cusack, John Joseph (1868–1956),” ADB, accessed July2014,http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/cusack-john-joseph-5856/text9957.NSW PD, Legislative Assembly 75(1919):959.
72. Sydney Morning Herald, 5 September1912.
73. NSW PD, Legislative Assembly 46(4 September1912):886–90.
74. NSW PD, Legislative Council 49(14 November1912):3247.
75.Ibid.
77.Election Policy Speech, Sydney Town Hall;Sydney Morning Herald, 15 October1913.
78.1915 Labor Conference, The Australian Worker, 8 April1915, 17.
79. The Advertiser, 9 April1915.
80.Bede Nairn, “Storey, John (1869–1921),” ADB, accessed July2014,http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/storey-john-8686/text15195.
81.Campaign speech by John Storey at the Masonic Hall, Drummoyne, 12 February 1920, reported inSydney Morning Herald, 13 February 1920.Nairn, “Storey, John (1869–1921).”
82.Chris Cunneen, “Dooley, James Thomas (1877–1950),” ADB, accessed July2014,http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/dooley-james-thomas-6000/text10247.
83.Campaign speech by James Dooley at the Bathurst Town Hall, 16 February 1922, reported inSydney Morning Herald, 17 February1922.
84.Bede Nairn, “Lang, John Thomas (Jack) (1876–1975),” ADB, accessed July2014,http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/lang-john-thomas-jack-7027/text12223.
85. Sydney Morning Herald, 19 May1925, 10.
86.New South Wales, The Statutes of New South Wales Passed during the Session of…(:Government Printer, 1912, 1932, 1935).Sydney Morning Herald, 4 March1932, 13.
87. Sydney Morning Herald, 21 April1941, 11.
88.Miners Federation leaders at the meeting in Sydney in 1948 called for the nationalisation of the industry.Courier Mail, 15 July1948, 3. The President of the union, for instance, advocated the takeover of the industry;Sydney Morning Herald, 9 July1952, 4.
89.Broomham, First Light.
90.Rolf Gerritsen, “The Creation of the Gas and Fuel Corporation of Victoria: A Study in Political Economy”(paper presented to the 22ndAnnual Conference, Australasian Political Studies Association, Australian National University, Canberra, 27–29 August1980).Proudley, Circle of Influence.
91.Broomham, First Light, 174.
92.Broomham, First Light.
93. The Advertiser, 24 September1924, 12.
94. The Capricornican, 30 December1916, 28.