Footnotes
*I would like to thank Dr Andrew Newby, Dr Frank Bongiorno, the participants of the Australian Studies Seminar at King’s College London, and the two anonymous referees ofLabour Historyfor comments on earlier versions of this article. All errors remain, of course, my own.
1. Argus(Melbourne), 28 September1910, 4.
2.Ibid.
3.Peter Love, Labour and the Money Power: Australian Labour Populism 1890–1950(:Melbourne University Press, 1984);Raymond Markey, The Making of the Labor Party in New South Wales, 1880–1900(:New South Wales University Press, 1988);F. Picard, “Henry George and the Labour Split of 1891,” Historical Studies: Australia and New Zealand 6, no. 21(1953):45–63;Bruce Scates, “‘Wobblers’: Single Taxers in the Labour Movement, Melbourne 1889–1899,” Historical Studies 21, no. 83(1984):174–96;Melissa Bellanta, “Transcending Class? Australia’s Single Taxers in the Early 1890s,” Labour History 92(2007):17–30.
4.George Knibbs, Official Yearbook of the Commonwealth of Australia(:Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics, 1910), 301–10.
5.Ross McMullin, The Light on the Hill: The Australian Labor Party 1891–1991(:Oxford University Press, 1991), 75;David Day, Andrew Fisher: Prime Minister of Australia(:Fourth Estate, 2008), 151, 197–213, 234;Nick Dyrenfurth, Heroes and Villains: The Rise and Fall of the Early Australian Labor Party(:Australian Scholarly Publishing, 2011), 137–41;Marian Sawyer, “Andrew Fisher and the Era of Liberal Reform,”Labour History, no. 102 (2012):71–86.
6.Marcel van der Linden, Transnational Labour History: Explorations(:Ashgate, 2003);Michael P. Hanagan, “An Agenda for Transnational Labor History,” International Review of Social History 49, no. 3(2004):455–74;Neville Kirk, Donald M. MacRaild, and Melanie Nolan, “Introduction: Transnational Ideas, Activities, and Organisations in Labour History, 1860s-1920s,” Labour History Review 74, no. 3(2009):221–32.
7.Ann Curthoys, “Does Australian History Have a Future?” Australian Historical Studies 33, no. 118(2002):140–52.
8.Jonathan Hyslop, “The Imperial Working Class Makes Itself ‘White’: White Labourism in Britain, Australia, and South Africa before the First World War,” Journal of Historical Sociology 12, no. 4(1999):398–421;Frank Bongiorno, “Fabian Socialism and British Australia, 1890–1972,”inRediscovering the British World, ed.Phillip A. Buckner and R. Douglas Francis(:University of Calgary Press, 2005):209–31;Mark Hearn and Nick Dyrenfurth, “Reinterpreting the Second Fisher Government,” Labour History, no. 102 (2012):1–10. See alsoNeville Kirk, Labour and the Politics of Empire: Britain and Australia 1900 to the Present(:Manchester University Press, 2011), especially 9–10. Kirk emphasises a comparative rather than transnational methodology.
9.Ray Markey and Kerry Taylor, “Trans-Tasman Labour History: Introduction,” Labour History, no. 95 (2008);Ray Markey, “An Antipodean Phenomenon: Comparing the Labo(u)r Party in New Zealand and Australia,” Labour History, no. 95 (2008):69–95.
10.Ray Markey, “The Australian Place in Comparative Labour History,” Labour History, no. 100 (2011):178;Nick Dyrenfurth, “Labour and Politics,” Labour History, no. 100 (2011):120;
11.Leslie Finlay Crisp, The Australian Federal Labour Party, 1901–1951(:Longmans, 1954), 98;Kirk, Labour and the Politics of Empire, 75–81;Day, Andrew Fisher, 148;Dyrenfurth, Heroes and Villains, 106.
12.Linden, Transnational Labour History, 11–22.
13.John Rickard, Class and Politics: New South Wales, Victoria and the Early Commonwealth(:Australian National University Press, 1976), 114.
14.Luke Trainor, British Imperialism and Australian Nationalism: Manipulation, Conflict, and Compromise in the Late Nineteenth Century(:Cambridge University Press, 1994), 130–40, 177–88.
15.Brian Fitzpatrick, The British Empire in Australia: An Economic History, 1834–1939(:Melbourne University Press, 1941).
16.Kosmas Tsokhas, Making a Nation State: Cultural Identity, Economic Nationalism and Sexuality in Australian History(:Melbourne University Press, 2001), 11. See alsoKosmas Tsokhas, Markets, Money and Empire: The Political Economy of the Australian Wool Industry(:Melbourne University Press, 1990), 1–15;Geoffrey Bolton, “Money: Trade, Investment and Economic Nationalism,”inAustralia’s Empire, ed.Deryck Schreuder and Stuart Ward(:Oxford University Press, 2008):211–30.
17.A. G. Hopkins, “Informal Empire in Argentina: An Alternative View,” Journal of Latin American Studies 26, no. 2(1994):469–84.
18.Peter Cain and Antony Hopkins, British Imperialism, 1688–2000(:Longman, 2001), ch. 8, 21;Peter Cain and Antony Hopkins, “Afterword: The Theory and Practice of British Imperialism,”inGentlemanly Capitalism and British Imperialism: The New Debate on Empire, ed.Raymond E. Dumett(:Longman, 1999), 204–8.
19.Bernard Attard, “From Free-Trade Imperialism to Structural Power: New Zealand and the Capital Market, 1856–68,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 35, no. 4(2007):505–27;Bernard Attard, “Bridgeheads, ‘Colonial Places’ and the Queensland Financial Crisis of 1866,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 41, no. 1(2013):11–36;Andrew Smith, British Businessmen and Canadian Confederation: Constitution-Making in an Era of Anglo-Globabization(:McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2008);Andrew Dilley, Finance, Politics, and Imperialism: Australia, Canada, and the City of London, c. 1896–1914(:Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), especially 8–11, 182–90;.
20.Picard, “Henry George”; Scates, “Wobblers”; Love, Labour and the Money Power, 29;Ken Buckley and Ted Wheelwright, No Paradise for Workers: Capitalism and the Common People in Australia 1788–1914(:Oxford University Press, 1988), 8–13;Bede Nairn, Civilising Capitalism: The Beginnings of the Australian Labor Party(:Melbourne University Press, 1989), 45–47;Bellanta, “Transcending Class,” 18–20;Markey, The Making of the Labor Party, 103, 297–305;Kosmas Tsokhas, “The Shearing Labour Process, 1900–1914,” Labour History, no. 59 (1990):87–103.
21.Ernst Arthur Boehm, Prosperity and Depression in Australia, 1887–1897(:Clarendon Press, 1971);Cain and Hopkins, British Imperialism, 222.
22.Markey, The Making of the Labor Party, especially 205–7;Love, Labour and the Money Power, 1–40;Frank Bongiorno, The People’s Party: Victorian Labor and the Radical Tradition, 1875–1914(:Melbourne University Press, 1996);Buckley and Wheelwright, No Paradise for Workers, 204–7;Tsokhas, Making a Nation State, 15, 31.
23.Frank Anstey, Monopoly and Democracy(:Labor Call Press Office, 1906). Frank Anstey, Labor Call, 6 February 1908, 2. See alsoPeter Love, “Frank Anstey and the Monetary Radicals,”inAustralian Financiers: Bibliographical Essays, ed.R. T. Appleyard and C. B. Schedvin(:Macmillan, 1988), 259.
24.William Guthrie Spence, Australia’s Awakening(:Worker Trustees, 1909), 596, 611, 616.
25.Nairn, Civilising Capitalism, 45–47;Markey, The Making of the Labor Party, 301;W. Pember Reeves, “Land Taxes in Australasia,” Economic Journal 21, no. 84(1911):519;
26.William Morris Hughes, The Case for Labor(:Sydney University Press, 1970; 1st Pub. 1910), 129, 131.
27.Michael Hogan, Labor Pains: Early Conference and Executive Reports of the Labor Party in New South Wales(:Federation Press, 2006), 60, 83.
28.Hogan, Labor Pains, 105–68, 183, 294;Spence, Australia’s Awakening, 612, 617;Markey, The Making of the Labor Party, 302–5.
29.George Knibbs, Official Yearbook of the Commonwealth of Australia(:Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics, 1909), 321–32.
30.Spence, Australia’s Awakening, 571.
31. Daily Telegraph(Sydney), 13 July1905, 6;Crisp, Australian Federal Labour Party, 263–64.
32.Sawyer, “Andrew Fisher,” 73–74, 84.
33. Western Australian, 8 June1906, 5;Kalgoorlie Western News, 12 June1906, 31.
34. Age(Melbourne), 9 July1908, 8, 13;Daily Telegraph, 8 July1908, 9.
35. Labor Call, 16 January1908, 3.
36.L. F. Fitzhardinge, William Morris Hughes, Volume 1: That Fiery Particle(:Halsted Press, 1964), 242;Reeves, “Land Taxes,” 515; Spence, Australia’s Awakening, 572;Land Values(May1910):262;Land Valueswas a British monthly single tax journal first published in Glasgow in 1894 asThe Single Tax. The title was changed in 1902.
37.Day, Andrew Fisher, 151, 171–72.
38.Extracts from Fisher’s Speech at Gympie, 30 March 1909, Prime Minister’s Office Papers (hereafter PMOP), National Archives of Australia (hereafter NAA), A2863/1/2;Daily Telegraph, 31 March1909, 3, 9.
39.Henry Gyles Turner, The First Decade of the Australian Commonwealth(:Mason, Firth & M’Cutcheon, 1911), 217–19, 287.
40.Rickard, Class and Politics, 247–50.
41.Turner, The First Decade of the Australian Commonwealth, 287.
42.Hughes, Case for Labor, 121.
43.Turner, The First Decade of the Australian Commonwealth, 264.
44.Daily Telegraph, 27 August1910, 11.
45.Rickard, Class and Politics, 249.
46.Quoted in H. Heaton, “The Taxation of Unimproved Value of Land in Australia,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 39, no. 3(1925):422;
47.William Morris Hughes, Daily Telegraph, 27 August1911, 11;Turner, The First Decade of the Australian Commonwealth, 287–89;Heaton, “The Taxation of Unimproved Value of Land in Australia,” 423.
48. Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates(CPD), 23, 27, 29and30September1910, 3697, 3867, 3977, 4021.
49. CPD, 16 August1910, 1542.
50. CPD, 31 August1910, 2329.
51. Daily Telegraph, 10 September1910, 11.
52. CPD, 12 Oct1910, 4461.
53. CPD, 13, 14, 16, 19, 20 and 21 September1910, 3015, 3002, 3087, 3095, 3120–21, 3333, 3415, 3510.
54. CPD, 30 and 31 August1910; 20 September 1910, 2244, 2290, 3423, 3411–12.
55. CPD, 12 October1910, 4455. See alsoCPD, 30 August 1910, 2237–39.
56. CPD, 30 August1910;14, 15, 19, 20 and 28 September 1910, 1911, 2243, 3079, 3082, 3117, 3276–77, 3422–25, 3827.
57.Antipodean legislation played similar roles in British debates on land taxation. See Edmund Rogers, “The Impact of the New World on Economic and Social Debates in Britain, c. 1860–1914,”(PhD diss.,University of Cambridge, 2008), 67–109.
58.Tsokhas, Markets, Money and Empire, 4–10;Simon P. Ville, The Rural Entrepreneurs: A History of the Stock and Station Agent Industry in Australia and New Zealand(:Cambridge University Press, 2000);Herman M. Schwartz, In the Dominions of Debt: Historical Perspectives on Dependent Development(:Cornell University Press, 1989), 67. For a recent analysis asserting the power of the British office of one pastoral firm, seeKevin Tennent, “Management and the Free-Standing Company: The New Zealand and Australia Land Company c. 1866–1900,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 41, no. 1(2013):81–97.
59.H. Rawson, Memorandum re NSW finances in London, January1906, Joseph Carruthers Papers, MSS 1683/55/23/143, Mitchell Library. On Nivison and Russell, seeR. P. T. Davenport-Hines, “Lord Glendyne,” in Appleyard and Schedvin, Australian Financiers, 190–205.
60.N. Cain, “Trade and Economic Structure at the Periphery: The Australian Balance of Payments, 1890–1965,”inAustralian Economic Development in the Twentieth Century, ed.Colin Forster(:Allen & Unwin, 1970), 103;Bernard Attard, “New Estimates of Australian Public Borrowing and Capital Raised in London, 1849–1914,” Australian Economic History Review 47, no. 2(2007):163, 176;Dilley, Finance, Politics, and Imperialism, 28, 49–54, 88–89, 144–145.
61.CPD, 13, 14, 15 and 28 September1910, 3012, 3111, 3280, 3832–33; Forrest to Fisher, 1 October 1910, PMOP, A2863/1/2907, NAA.
62.Dyrenfurth, Heroes and Villains, 107–8, 117–18, 141.
63.Arnold to Fisher, 15 August1910, PMOP, A2863/1/2218, NAA.
64.“Federal Land Tax,” Argus, 2 September1910.
65.Kidd to London Office, September 1910, Sydney Manager London Letterbook, 68A, Australian Mercantile Land and Finance Company Papers, Dep. 162/3129/1511, Noel Butlin Archives Centre (hereafter NBAC).
66.See for example, Mercury(Hobart), 19 August 1910, 5;Argus, 19 August 1910, 7;Sydney Morning Herald, 19 August 1910, 7.
67.Musgrave to Reid, 6 September 1910, PMOP, A2863/1/2907, NAA.
68.Doxat to Fairbairn, 15 September 1910, E. T. Doxat Papers, N8/30, 535–36 (hereafter Doxat Letterbooks), NBAC.
69.Bernard Attard, “How to Organise a ‘Capital Strike’: The British Australasian Society and the Queensland Government, 1899–1924”(paper presented to the Economic History Society Annual Conference, University of York, 5–7 April2013).
70.British Australasian Society to Fisher, 29 September1910, Doxat to Fisher, 7 October 1910, PMOP, A2863/1/2774, NAA.
71. Sydney Morning Herald, 29 November1910, 7.
72.See for example, The Economist, 17 June1911, 1311–14.
73.N. G. Butlin, “‘Company Ownership’ of N.S.W. Pastoral Stations, 1865–1900,” Historical Studies: Australia and New Zealand 4, no. 14(1950):96–97. See also footnote 75.
74.Dilley, Finance, Politics, and Imperialism, 50, 59–60, 178.
75.Doxat to Fairbairn, 2 Dec 1910, 1 February1911, Doxat LetterbooksN8/30, 572–73, 593–94.
76.Attard, “New Estimates,” 176.
77.London Chamber of Commerce (hereafter LCC), Council Minute Book, 10 November1910, 2343, MS 16459/4, London Metropolitan Archive (hereafter LMA); LCC, Australian Section Minute Books, February 1911, 157, MS 16511/1, LMA.
78.LCC, Australian Section Minute Books, February 1911, 157, MS 16511/1, LMA.
79.LCC, Australasian Trade Section Minute Books, 14 February, 31 May 1911, 157, 160–61, MS 16511/1, LMA; LCC, Council Minute Books, 11 May 1911, 2, 423, MS16459/4, LMA.
80. Bulletin(Sydney), 29 June1911, 7.
81. Chamber of Commerce Journal, July1911, 205–6.
82. Chamber of Commerce Journal, 205–7.
83. Sydney Morning Herald, 16 June1911, 8.
84. Bulletin, 29 June1911, 7.
85.Heaton, “The Taxation of Unimproved Value of Land in Australia,” 424–28.
86.During World War I, Fisher and Hughes bargained hard with the British government over the purchase of Australia’s wool clip. Championing short-run export earnings (and hence the pastoral industry) did not contradict the aspiration to transform rural landholdings in the long term which underlay the tax. SeeTsokhas, Markets, Money and Empire, ch. 1.
87.Tsokhas, Making a Nation State, 5;Tsokhas, Markets, Money and Empire, 3–4.
88.Crisp, Australian Federal Labour Party, 263–64;Dilley, Finance, Politics, and Imperialism, p.143–45, 153–54, 156.
89.Events encapsulated in the career ofE. G. Theodore; seeK. H. Kennedy, “E. G. Theodore,”in Appleyard and Schedvin, Australian Financiers, 278–308. See alsoAttard, “How to Organise a ‘Capital Strike.’”