Endnotes
1.F. Watson, ‘Preface’, Historical Records of Australia, Series 1, vol.1,Commonwealth Parliament,, 1914, p.vii.
2.F. Harrison, ‘When the convicts came: A chapter from “Land Marks of Old Prince William”’, The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, vol.30, no.3, July1922, p.257.
3.P.A. Bruce, Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century: An Inquiry into the Material Condition of the People, Based on Original and Contemporaneous Records,Macmillan,, 1896, pp.589-608;
4.J.D. Butler, ‘British convicts shipped to American colonies’, American Historical Review, 2October1896, pp.12-33.
5.E.I. McCormack, White Servitude in Maryland, 1634-1820,John Hopkins Press,, 1904, p.96.
6.A.E. Smith, ‘The transportation of convicts to the American colonies in the seventeenth century’, American Historical Review, vol.39, no.2, January1934, p.248.
7.B. Sollers, ‘Transported convict laborers in Maryland during the colonial period’, Maryland Historical Magazine, vol.2, no.1, March1907, p.46.
8.A.W. Read, ‘The assimilation of the speech of British immigrants in colonial America’, Journal of English and Germanic Philology, vol.37, no.1January1938, p.7.
9.J.F. Watson, The Beginnings of Government in Australia,Government Printer,, 1913, p.4.
10.E.G. Wakefield, A Letter from Sydney, the Principal Town of Australasia, Together with the Outline of a System of Colonization,J. Cross,, 1829, esp. pp.70-78.
11.For example,H.W. Parker, The Rise, Progress, and Present State of Van Dieman’s Land,J. Cross,, 1833, p.39.
12.Price Warung, ‘Preface’, inTales of the Convict System,Bulletin Newspaper Co.,, 1892.
13.J. Bonwick, The Bushrangers: Illustrating the Early Days of Van Diemen’s Land,George Robertson,, 1856, p.1.
14.E. Scott, Short History of Australia,Oxford University Press,, 1916, pp.156, 218.
15.J.T. Sutcliffe, A History of Trade Unionism in Australia,Macmillan,, 1921, p.8;G. Lightfoot andJ.T. Sutcliffe, ‘The historical development of trade unionism in Australia’, inM. Atkinson(ed.), Trade Unionism in Australia,Burrows and Co,, 1915, p.49.
16.G.V. Portus, ‘The labour movement in Australia (1788-1914)’, inM. Atkinson(ed), Australia: Economic and Political Studies,McMillan and Co,, 1920, pp.145-93.
17.H. Heaton, Modern Economic History: With Special Reference to Australia,Workers’ Educational Association of South Australia,, 1922, p.156;Portus, ‘The labour movement in Australia’, p.151.
18.V.S. Clarke, The Labour Movement in Australasia: A Study in Social Democracy,Burt Franklin,, 1907, p.19.
19.J. Merritt, ‘Labour history’, inG. Osborne andW.F. Mandle(eds), New History: Studying Australia Today,Allen & Unwin,, 1982, p.113.
20.T. Coghlan, Labour and Industry in Australia: From the First Settlement in 1788 to the Establishment of the Commonwealth in 1901,Oxford University Press,, 1918, vol.1, pp.1-199.
21.Ibid., p.26.
22.Ibid., pp.39-47.
23.J.F. Hammond andB. Hammond, The Village Labourer 1760-1832: A Study in the Government of England before the Reform Bill,Longmans and Co,, 1911, p.175.
24.G.A. Wood, ‘Convicts’, Royal Australian Historical Society: Journal and Proceedings, vol.8, no.4, 1922, pp.177-208. See also the closing lines ofM. Phillips, A Colonial Autocracy: New South Wales underGovernor Macquarie,, 1909, p.332.
25.For discussion, seeD.A. Roberts, ‘“More sinned against than sinning”: George Arnold Wood and the noble convict’, inMaking Australian History: Perspectives on the Past since 1788,D. Gare andD. Ritter(eds),Thomson,, 2007, pp.122-30;J. Thomas, ‘1938: Past and present in an elaborate anniversary’, Australian Historical Studies, vol.23, no.91, October1988, pp.77-89.
26.F.M. Cubis, ‘Australian character in the making in New South Wales, 1788-1901’, Journal of The Royal Australian Historical Society, vol.24, 1938, pp.165-84.
27.W.K. Hancock, Australia,Ernest Benn,, 1930, p.41.
28.E. O’Brien, The Foundation of Australia, 1786-1800: A Study in English Criminal Practices and Penal Colonisation in the Eighteenth Century,Sheed & Ward,, 1937. See alsoW.D. Forsyth, Governor Arthur’s Convict System, Van Dieman’s Land, 1824-36: A Study in Colonization,Longmans Green,, 1935.
29.R.B. Madgwick, Immigration into Eastern Australia,Longmans Green,, 1937.
30.M Barnard Eldershaw, Phillip of Australia: An Account of the Settlement at Sydney Cove,Angus & Robertson,, 1938, p.341.
31.H. Rumsey, Pioneers of Sydney Cove,,Sunnybrook Press,, 1937.
32.For example,F. Broeze, ‘Introduction: The Convict Experience and Australian Society’, Westerly, vol.30, no.3, September1985, pp.31-35;B. Dyster, ‘Convicts’, Labour History, no.67, November1994, pp.74-83.
33.F. Clune, The Scottish Martyrs: Their Trials and Transportation to Botany Bay,Angus and Robertson,, 1969, p.xi;F. Clune, Martin Cash: The Last of the Tasmanian Bushrangers,Angus and Robertson,, 1956, p.274.
34.R.M. Crawford, Australia,Hutchinson,, 1952, pp.44-46.
35.C.M.H. Clark, ‘The origins of convicts transported to eastern Australia, 1787-1852’, Historical Studies: Australia and New Zealand, vol.7, no.26, May1956, pp.121-35, and vol.7, no.27, November1956, pp.314-27.
36.R. Ward, The Australian Legend,Oxford University Press,, 1958.
37.R. Ward, Australia,Horwitz Publications,, 1965, p.40;R. Ward, Uses of History,University of New England,, 1968, p.7; pp.9-10;K. MacNab andR. Ward, ‘The nature and nurture of the first generation of native-born Australians’, Historical Studies: Australia and NewZealand, vol.10, no.39, 1962, p.290. For discussion, seeD.A. Roberts, ‘Russel Ward and the convict legend’, Journal of Australian Colonial History, vol.10, no.2, 2008, pp.37-58.
38.J.V. Barry, Alexander Maconochie of Norfolk Island: A Study of a Pioneer in Penal Reform,Oxford University Press,, 1958;B. Fitzpatrick, ‘Hell’s compassionate Cerberus’, Overland, vol.15, July1959, pp.52-53. See alsoS.C. McCulloch‘s review inPacific Historical Review, vol.29, no.3, August1960, pp.316-17;J.M. Bennett, review ofAlexander Maconochie of Norfolk IslandbyJohn Vincent Barry, Sydney Law Review, vol.30, 1960, pp.397-400.
39.L.L. Robson, The Convict Settlers of Australia,Melbourne University Press,, 1965.
40.A.G.L. Shaw, Convicts and the Colonies: A Study of Penal Transportation from Great Britain and Ireland to Australia and Other Parts of the British Empire,Faber & Faber,, 1966.
41.Ibid., p.214.
42.K. Buckley, ‘The role of labour: The Amalgamated Society of Engineers’, Labour History, no.4, March1963, p.3;R. Gollan, Radical and Working Class Politics: A Study of Eastern Australia,1850-1910,Melbourne University Press,, 1960;I. Turner, Industrial Labour and Politics: The Dynamics of the Labour Movement in Eastern Australia, 1900-1921,ANU Press,, 1965;J. Rickard, Class and Politics: New South Wales, Victoria and the Early Commonwealth, 1890-1910,ANU Press,, 1976.
43.J. Normington-Rawling, ‘Before Eureka’, Labour History, no.4, May1963, pp.11-18;T.H. Irving, ‘Some aspects of the study of radical politics in New South Wales before 1850’, Labour History, no.5, November1963, pp.18-25. See alsoL.J. Hume, ‘Working class movements in Sydney and Melbourne before the gold rushes’, Historical Studies, vol.9, no.35, 1960, pp.263-78.
44.G. Parsons, ‘The Cato Street conspirators’, Labour History, no.8, May1965, pp.3-5;R.W. Connell, ‘The convict rebellion of 1804’, Melbourne Historical Journal, vol5, 1965, pp.27-37.
45.W.H. Oliver, ‘Tolpuddle Martyrs and the Trade Union Oaths’, Labour History, no.10, March1966, pp.5-12.
46.H McQueen, ‘Convicts and rebels’, Labour History, no.15, 1968, p.3-30;Ward, The Australian Legend, p.29.
47.R. Ward, ‘Convicts and rebels: A reply’, Labour History, no.16, May1969, p.58. SeeF. Bongiorno, ‘Two radical legends: Russel Ward, Humphrey McQueen and the new left challenge in Australian historiography’, Journal of Australian Colonial History, vol.10, no.2, 2008, pp.201-22.‘Convicts and rebels’essentially became ch. 11 of McQueen’sA New Britannia: Social Origins of AustralianRadicalism and Socialism,Penguin,, 1970, with a slightly more polite phrasing of his criticism of Ward.
48.A. Summers, Damned Whores and God’s Police: The Colonisation of Women in Australia,Penguin Harmondsworth, 1975, ch. 8;M. Dixson, The Real Matilda: Women and Identity in Australia, 1788 tothe Present,, 1976, pp.115-54.
49.For example,K. Alford, Production or Reproduction?: An Economic History of Women in Australia, 1788-1850,Oxford University Press,, 1984, esp. pp.74-96, 163-71;A. Salt, These Outcast Women: The Parramatta Female Factory 182J-1848,Hale & Iremonger,, 1984
50.S. Macintyre, ‘The making of the Australian working class: An historiographical survey’ Historical Studies, vol.18, no.71, October1978, pp.233-53.
51.K. Buckley, ‘Primary accumulation: The genesis of Australian capitalism’,E.L. Wheelwright andK. Buckley(eds), Essays in the Political Economy of Australian Capitalism, vol.1, 1975, pp.12-32.
52.Buckley, ‘Primary accumulation’, pp.12-32.
53.M. Dunn, ‘Early Australia: Wage labour or slave society?’,E.L. Wheelwright andK. Buckley(eds), Essays in the Political Economy of Australian Capitalism, vol.1, 1975, pp.12-32.
54.R.W. Connell andT.H. Irving, Class Structure in Australian History: Documents, Narrative and Argument,Longman Cheshire,, 1982.
55.I. Turner, In Union Is Strength: A History of Trade Unions in Australia, 1788-1974,, 1983, pp.9-10.
56.‘Editorial: The purpose of the Push’, Push From the Bush, no.1, May1978, p.3.
57.M. Sturma, ‘Eye of the beholder: The stereotype of women convicts, 1788-1852’, Labour History, no.34, 1978, pp.3-10. For earlier work, seeD. Denholm, ‘Port Arthur; The men and the myth’, Historical Studies, vol.14, no.56, 1971, pp.406-23;G. Parsons, ‘Does the Bigge Report Follow the Evidence’, Australian Historical Studies, vol.18, 1972, pp.268-75;J. Ritchie, ‘Towards ending an unclean thing: The Molesworth Committee and the abolition of transportation, 1837-40’, HistoricalStudies, vol.17, no.76, 1976, pp.144-64;F.B. Smith, ‘Mayhew’s convict’, Victorian Studies, vol.22, no.4, Summer1979, pp.431–48;N. Townsend, ‘A mere lottery: The convict system in NSW, through the eyes of the Molesworth Committee’, Push From The Bush, no.21, 1985, pp.58-86.
58.G. Rudé Protest and Punishment: Story of the Social and Political Protesters Transported to Australia, 1788-1868,Oxford University Press,, 1978.
59.A. Atkinson, ‘Four patterns of convict protest’, Labour History, no.37, 1979, pp.28-51.
60.J.B. Hirst, Convict Society and its Enemies: A History of Early New South Wales,Allen & Unwin,, 1983;M. Sturma, Vice in a Vicious Society: Crime and Convicts in Mid-Nineteenth-Century NewSouth Wales,University of Queensland Press,, 1983.
61.W. Nichol, ‘Malingering and convict protest’, Labour History, no.47, 1984, pp.18-27.
62.C. Trueheart, ‘Robert Hughes and the Aussie chronicles’, Washington Post, 6February1987, p.2.
63.P. Burroughs, ‘The law, the citizen, and the state in nineteenth Century Australia’, The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, vol.22, no.3, 1994, p.543.
64.S. Nicholas(ed), Convict Workers: Reinterpreting Australia’s Past,Cambridge University Press,, 1988.
65.R. Evans andW. Thorpe, ‘Power, punishment and penal labour: Convict workers and Moreton Bay’, Australian Historical Studies, vol.25, no.98, April1992, pp.90-111;A. Davidson, Review ofConvict Workers, Australian Historical Studies, vol.23, no.93, 1989, p.481;S. Nicholas, ‘A new past’, inS. Nicholas(ed.), Convict Workers, p.201.
66.Davidson, Review ofConvict Workers, pp.480-1.
67.S. Nicholas, ‘Beyond convict workers: Unanswered questions about convict economy and society’, inB. Dyster(ed.), Beyond Convict Workers,, 1996, pp.3-4. See alsoS. Nicholas, ‘Reinterpreting the convict labour market’, Australian Economic History Review, vol.30, no.2, September1990, pp.50-56.
68.For example,B. Dyster, ‘Transported workers: The case of Mayhew versus Mayhew’, Labour History, no.60, May1991, pp.84-92.
69.T. O’Connor, ‘Buckley’s chance: Freedom and hope at the penal settlements of Newcastle and Moreton Bay’, Tasmanian Historical Studies, vol.6, no.2, 1999, pp.115-28.
70.C. Gilchrist, ‘“This relic of the cities of the plain”: Penal flogging, convict morality and the colonial imagination’, Journal of Australian Colonial History, vol.9, 2007, pp.1-28;I.B. Meyering, ‘Abolitionism, settler violence and the case against flogging: A reassessment of Sir William Molesworth’s contribution to the transportation debate’, History Australia, vol.7, no.1, 2010, pp.6.1-6.18.
71.R. Evans andW. Thorpe, ‘Power, punishment and penal labour: Convict workers and Moreton Bay’, Australian Historical Studies, vol.25, no.98, April1992, pp.90-111;R. Evans andW. Thorpe, ‘Freedom and unfreedom at Moreton Bay: The structures and relations of secondary punishment’inDyster(ed.), Beyond Convict Workers, pp.64-82;R. Evans andW. Thorpe, ‘The last days of Moreton Bay: Power, sexuality and the misrule of law’, Journal of Australian Studies, vol.53, 1997, pp.59-75;R. Evans andW. Thorpe, ‘Commanding men: Masculinities and the convict system’, Journal of Australian Studies, no.56, 1998, pp.17-34.
72.H. Maxwell-Stewart, ‘Convict Workers, “penal labour” and Sarah Island: Life at Macquarie Harbour’, inI. Duffield andJ. Bradley, (eds.), Representing Convicts: New Perspectives on ConvictForced Labour Migration,, 1997, pp.142-62.
73.D. Neal, The Rule of Law in a Penal Colony: Law and Power in early New South Wales,Cambridge University Press,, 1991.
74.P.J. Byrne, Criminal Law and Colonial Subject: New South Wales 1810-1830,Cambridge University Press,, 1993, esp. pp.19-72.
75.B. Smith, Cargo of Women: Susannah Watson and the Convicts of the Princess Royal,UNSW Press,, 1988. See alsoP. Robinson, The Women of Botany Bay: A Reinterpretation of the Role of Womenin the Origins of Australian Society,Penguin,, 1993.
76.D. Kent andN. Townsend, ‘Deborah Oxley’s female convicts: An accurate view of working class women?’, Labour History, no.65, November1993, pp.180-91;D. Oxley, ‘Exercising agency’, LabourHistory, no.65, November1993, pp.193-99.
77.The literature is vast, but see especiallyD. Oxley, Convict Maids: The Forced Migration of Women to Australia,Cambridge University Press,, 1996;J. Damousi, Depraved and Disorderly: Female Convicts, Sexuality and Gender in Colonial Australia,Cambridge University Press,, 1997;K. Daniels, Convict Women,Allen and Unwin,, 1998;K. McCabe, ‘Discipline and punishment: Female convicts on the Hunter’, Journal of Australian Colonial History, vol.1, no.1, 1999, pp.38-61;K. Reid, ‘Setting women to work: The assignment system and female convict labour in Van Diemen’s Land, 1820-1839’, Australian Historical Studies, vol.34, no.121, 2003, pp.1-25.
78.G. Karskens, ‘Defiance, deference and diligence: Three views of convicts in New South Wales road gangs’, Australian Historical Archaeology, vol.4, 1986, pp.17-28.
79.C.F.K. Fredericksen, ‘Confinement by isolation: Convict mechanics and labour at Fort Dundas, Melville Island’, Australasian Historical Archaeology, vol.19, 2001, pp.48-59.
80.For example,R. Miles, Capitalism and Unfree Labour: Anomaly or Necessity?,Tavistock Publications Ltd,, 1987, pp.94-117.
81.A. Wells, Constructing Capitalism: An Economic History of Eastern Australia,Allen and Unwin,, 1989, p.61.
82.For example,K. Buckley andT. Wheelwright, No Paradise For Workers: Capitalism and the Common People in Australia, 1788-1914,Oxford University Press,, 1988;G. Patmore, Australian Labour History,Longman Cheshire,, 1991;C. Fox, Working Australia,Allen and Unwin,, 1991;M. Aveling andJ. Damousi(eds), Stepping Out of History: Documents of Women at Work in Australia,Allen and Unwin,, 1991.
83.P.J. Byrne, ‘“The public good”: Competing visions of freedom in early New South Wales’, Labour History, no.58, May1990, pp.76-83;K. Humphrey, ‘A new era of existence: Convict transportation and the authority of the surgeon general in colonial Australia’, Labour History, no.59, November1990, pp.59-72;J. Damousi, ‘“Depravity and disorder”: The sexuality of convict women’, Labour History, no.68, May1995, pp.30-45;G. Karskens, ‘Death was in his face: Dying, burial and remembrance in early Sydney’, Labour History, no.74, May1988, pp.21-39;D. Kent andN. Townsend, ‘Some aspects of colonial marriage: A case study of the Swing protesters’, Labour History, no.74, May1988, pp.40-53;N. Townsend, ‘Penelope Bourke revisited’, Labour History, no.57, November1999, pp.207-18.
84.L. Taksa, ‘Family, childhood and identities: Working class history from a personalised perspective’, Labour History, no.82, May2002, p.128.
85.Best demonstrated inH. Maxwell-Stewart andL. Frost, Chain Letters: Narrating Convict Lives,Melbourne University Press,, 2001. See alsoD. Kent, ‘Decorative bodies: The significance of convicts’tattoos’, Journal of Australian Studies, no.53, 1997, p.78-88;J. Bradley andH. Maxwell-Stewart, ‘Embodied explorations: Investigating convict tattoos and the transportation system’, inI. Duffield andJ. Bradley(eds.), Representing Convicts: New Perspectives on Forced LabourMigration,Leicester University Press,, 1997;H. Maxwell-Stewart, ‘The search for the convict voice’, Tasmanian Historical Studies, vol.6, no.1, 1998, pp.75-89.
86.Note, for example, the absence of Australian perspective in some of the key accounts of the global history of unfree labour and forced migration, such as:L.J. Archer, Slavery and Other Forms of UnfreeLabour,Routledge,, 1988;P.E. Lovejoy andN. Rogers(eds), Unfree Labour in the Developmentof the Atlantic World,Frank Cass and Co. Ltd,, 1994;R. Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery: From the Baroque to the Modern, 1492-1800,Verso,, 1997;S.L. Engerman, Terms of Labor: Slavery, Serfdom, and Free Labor,Stanford University Press,, 1999;R.J. Steinfield, Coercion, Contract, and Free Labor in the Nineteenth Century,Cambridge University Press,, 2001. Among the exceptions isD. Eltis, Coerced and Free Migration: Global Perspectives,Stanford University Press,, 2002.
87.I. Duffield andJ. Bradley(eds), Representing Convicts: New perspectives on Convict Forced Labour Migration,Leicester University Press,, 1997.
88.For example,I. Duffield, ‘From slave colonies to penal colonies: The West Indian convict transportees to Australia’, Slavery and Abolition, vol.7, no.1, May1986, pp.25-45;‘Billy Blue: A legend of early Sydney’, History Today, vol.37, February1987, pp.43-8;‘The life and death of “Black” John Goff: Aspects of the black convict contribution to resistance patterns during the transportation era in eastern Australia’, Australian Journal of Politics and History, vol.33, no.1, 1987, pp.30-87;‘Daylight on convict lived experience: The history of a pious negro servant’, TasmanianHistorical Studies, vol.6, no.2, 1999, pp.29-62. On African convicts, see also‘His country marks: African soldiers from the Caribbean regiments transported to the Australian penal colonies’, Australian Cultural History, no.21, 2002, pp.33-9;‘The many escapes of John Moseley’, Journal ofAustralian Colonial History, vol.7, 2005, pp.65-80.
89.K. Reid, Gender, Crime and Empire: Convicts, Settlers and the State in Early Colonial Australia,Manchester University Press,, 2007;C. Anderson, ‘Unfree labour and its discontents: Transportation from Mauritius to Australia, 1820-1850’, Australian Studies, vol.13, no.1, 1998, pp.116–133;C. Anderson, ‘Multiple border crossings: Convicts and other persons escaped from Botany Bay and residing in Calcutta’, Journal of Australian Colonial History, vol.3, no.2, 2001, pp.1-22.
90.For example,S. Nicholas andR. Steckel, ‘Heights and living standards of workers during the early years of British industrialisation, 1770-1815’, Journal of Economic History, vol.51, no.4, December1991, pp.937-957;S. Nicholas andD. Oxley, ‘The living standards of women during the industrial revolution, 1795-1820’, Economic History Review, New Series, vol.46, no.4, November1993, pp.723-49;S. Nicholas andD. Oxley, ‘Living standards of women in England and Wales, 1785-1815: New evidence from Newgate Prison records’, Economic History Review, vol.49, no.3, 1996, pp.591-99;D. Meredith andD. Oxley, ‘Condemned to the colonies. penal transportation as the solution to Britain’s law and order problem’, Leidschrift. vol.22, no.1, 2007, pp.19-39.
91.D. Kent andN. Townsend, The Convicts of the Eleanor,Merlin/Pluto Press,, 2002;C. Pybus andH. Maxwell-Stewart, American Citizens, British Slaves, Yankee Political Prisoners in an AustralianPenal Colony, 1839-1850,Melbourne University Press,, 2002. Although it pertains less exclusively to the study of convicts,Kirsten McKenzie‘sScandal in the Colonies,Melbourne University Press,, 2004, also epitomised the new trans-national focus by exploring surprising similarities and relationships between colonial societies in Sydney and Cape Town.
92.D.A. Roberts, ‘“A sort of inland Norfolk Island”?: Isolation, coercion and resistance on the Wellington Convict Station, 1823-26’, Journal of Australian Colonial History, April2000, pp.50-72
93.B. Dyster, ‘Bungling a courthouse: A story of convict workplace reform’, Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society, vol.93, Pt. 1, June2007, pp.1-21.
94.T. Dunning andH. Maxwell-Stewart, ‘Mutiny at Deloraine: Ganging and convict resistance in 1840s Van Diemen’s Land’, Labour History, no.82, May2002, pp.35-47.
95.W.M. Robbins, ‘The lumber yards: A case study in management of convict labour 1788-1832,’ Labour History, no.79, November2000, pp.141–61;W.M. Robbins, ‘Contested terrain: The convict task work system 1788-1830’, inR. Markey(ed.), Community and Labour: Historical Essays,Wollongong, 2001, pp.256-60.W.M. Robbins, ‘Spatial escape and the Hyde Park Barracks’, Journalof Australian Colonial History, vol.7, 2005, pp.81-96;W.M. Robbins, ‘Governor Macquarie’s job descriptions and the bureaucratic control of the convict labour process’, Labour History, no.96, May2009, pp.1-18.