Footnotes
*The author would like to sincerely thank Georgine Clarsen, Frances Steel, Matthew Bailey, Jonathan Symons, andLabour History‘s two anonymous referees, for their valuable comments on earlier versions of this paper.
1. Commonwealth Arbitration Reports 11(1917):67;Keith Hancock, Australian Wage Policy(:University of Adelaide Press, 2013), 163.
2. Commonwealth Arbitration Reports 6(1912):61;Edna Ryan andAnne Conlon, Gentle Invaders: Australian Women at Work(:Penguin, 1989), 98–100.
3.See for example,Jane Carey, “Departing from Their Sphere? Australian Women in Science, 1880–1960,”inDepartures: How Australia Reinvents Itself, ed.Xavier Pons(:Melbourne University Press, 2002), 175–83;Jane Carey, “A Transnational Project? Women and Gender in the Social Sciences in Australia, 1890–1945,” Women’s History Review 18, no. 1(2009):45–69;Bronwyn Hanna, “Australia’s Early Women Architects: Milestones and Achievements,” Fabrications 12, no. 1(2002):27–57;Kathie Cooper, “Accounting by Women: Fear, Favour and the Path to Professional Recognition for Australian Women Accountants,” Accounting History 15, no. 3(2010):309–36.
4.Henry Mayer, The Press in Australia(:Lansdowne, 1964);Clem Lloyd, Profession: Journalist;R. B. Walker, Yesterday’s News: A History of the Newspaper Press in New South Wales from 1920 to 1945(:Sydney University Press, 1980). For a comprehensive study of early women journalists, seePatricia Clarke, Pen Portraits: Women Writers and Journalists in Nineteenth Century Australia(:Allen & Unwin, 1988). For historical overviews of women in the Australian media, seePatricia Clarke, “Women in the Media,”inA Companion to the Australian Media, ed.Bridget Griffen-Foley(:Australian Scholarly Publishing, 2014), 495–98;Barbara Lemon, “Women Journalists in Australian History,”The Women’s Pages: Australian Women and Journalism since 1850,Australian Women’s Archive Project, accessed March2015,http://www.womenaustralia.info/exhib/cal/intro.html;Louise North, “Media Print News,”inThe Encyclopedia of Women and Leadership in Twentieth-Century Australia, accessed March2015,http://www.womenaustralia.info/leaders/biogs/WLE0435b.htm.
5.Sharyn Pearce, Shameless Scribblers: Australian Women’s Journalism 1880–1995(:Central Queensland University Press, 1998).
6.Paula Hamilton, “Journalists, Gender and Workplace Culture 1900–1940,”inJournalism: Print, Politics and Popular Culture, ed.Ann Curthoys andJulianne Schultz(:University of Queensland Press, 1999), 97–116.
7.See for example,Bridget Griffen-Foley, The House of Packer: The Making of a Media Empire(:Allen & Unwin, 1999);Gavin Souter, Company of Heralds: A Century and a Half of Australian Publishing by John Fairfax Limited and Its Predecessors, 1831–1981(:Melbourne University Press, 1981);Patricia Rolfe, The Journalistic Javelin : An Illustrated History of the Bulletin(:Wildcat Press; distributed by Golden Press, 1979).
8.Journalism in the Thirties (sound recording), 6–7 December1976, ORAL TRC 121/85, National Library of Australia (NLA).
9.Maurine Beasley, “Recent Directions for the Study of Women’s History in American Journalism,” Journalism Studies 2, no. 2(2001):209;Hamilton, “Journalists, Gender, and Workplace Culture,” 102.
11.The distinct role of the reporter was to gather the news in the field, such as by interviewing, attending meetings or observing court cases. Charles H. Wickens and Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics (Australia), Census of the Commonwealth of Australia Taken for the Night Between the 3rd and 4th April, 1921(:Government Printer, [1925–27]);Marianne Salcetti, “The Emergence of the Reporter: Mechanization and the Devaluation of Editorial Workers,”inNewsworkers: Toward a History of the Rank and File, ed.Hanno Hardt andBonnie Brennen(:University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 56–7.
12.Beverley Kingston, My Wife, My Daughter and Poor Mary Ann(:Nelson, 1977), 61.
13.The figure for nurses includes the following sub-categories: 922 (hospital), 923 (mothercraft and child), 924 (hospital probationer), 938 (private), 939 (maternity and midwife), and excludes matrons. Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics (Australia), Census of the Commonwealth of Australia, 30th June, 1933(:Commonwealth Government Printer, 1933).
14.Lloyd, Profession: Journalist, 29.
15.Ibid., 296;Mayer, The Press in Australia, 191.
16.Hamilton, “Journalists, Gender and Workplace Culture,” 100–101.
17.Deborah Chambers,Linda Steiner, andCarole Fleming, Women and Journalism(:Routledge, 2004), 27.
18.Tess Van Sommers interviewed by Hazel de Berg (sound recording), 8 March1976, ORAL TRC 1/919, NLA.
19.Margaret Curtis-Otter interviewed by Hazel de Berg (sound recording), 6 December1975, ORAL TRC 1/906–907, NLA.
20.Lloyd, Profession: Journalist, 161;Bridget Griffen-Foley, “‘Operating on an Intelligent Level’: Cadet Training at Consolidated Press in the 1940s,”inCurthoys andSchultz, Journalism, 145–46.
21.Pat Weetman, “Husband Taught Leader of Housewives to Cook,” Herald, 1 May1954.
22.“Hain, Gladys Adeline (1887–1962),” Australian Dictionary of Biography(ADB),National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, accessed March2015,http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/hain-gladys-adeline-6520;Gladys Hain, “They are Learning to be Australian,” Argus, 30 July1938(supplement), 5;“A Woman Looks at the Slums,” Argus, 27 October1937, 9.
23. “Hain, Gladys Adeline”;Weetman, “Husband Taught Leader.”
24.The University of Queensland initially offered a Diploma for Journalism, which became a Diploma in Journalism in 1934.Rod Kirkpatrick, “Diploma to Degree: 75 Years of Tertiary Journalism Studies,” Australian Studies in Journalism 5(1996):257–59;Minute Book, Diploma in Journalism Committee 1920–49, UM26,University of Melbourne Archives.
25. Journalist, 17 February1928, 17 May1928, 24 September1930, 30 June1937, 31 August1937, 28 February1938;Penny O’Donnell, “Journalism Education,”inGriffen-Foley, A Companion to the Australian Media, 226.
26.Lloyd, Profession: Journalist, 130.
27. Journalist, 24 September1928;Clifford Turney,Ursula Bygott, andPeter Chippendale, Australia’s First: A History of the University of Sydney, vol. 1, 1850–1939(:University of Sydney in association with Hale & Iremonger, 1991), 478–79.
28.Minutes of Meeting of the Board of Journalistic Studies, 1 March1940, cons 714, University of Western Australia (UWA) Archives; UWA Calendar1947, 385 and1949, 402; Handwritten List of Journalism Students1928–46, extract from cons 732, attached to enquiry 1991/37, UWA Archives.
29.Minutes, 20 September 1923 and 16 December1924, Diploma in Journalism Committee1920–49, Minute Book, 1920–49, UM26, University of Melbourne Archives.
30.Lynn Beaton, “The Importance of Women’s Paid Labour: Women at Work in World War II,”inWorth Her Salt: Women at Work in Australia, ed.Margaret Bevege,Margaret James, andCarmel Shute(:Hale & Iremonger, 1982), 85–86;Kingston, My Wife, My Daughter, 62.
31.Lloyd, Profession: Journalist, 84.
32.The Menzies award of 1927 provided for a simplified grade system, from A to D.Ibid., 161.
33.Kay Whitehead, “Careers Advice for Women and the Shaping of Identities,” Labour History, no. 92(May2007):60.
34. Journalist, 18 January1929, 14;R. B. Walker, The Newspaper Press in New South Wales 1803–1920(:Sydney University Press, 1976), 162, 242.
35. Australasian Journalist, 25 November1916, 204–305.
36.Ibid., 15 December1916, 326.
38.Lloyd, Profession: Journalist, 147–48.
39. Journalist, 19 January1928, 5.
40.Ibid., 17 December1928, 188–91.
41.Lloyd, Profession: Journalist, 147, 305;Clarke, “Women in the Media,” 496.
42.Lesley Heath, “Society of Women Writers 1925–1935,” Australian Literary Studies 21, no. 3(2004):362–78.
43.“Women and Journalists,” Clarence and Richmond Examiner, 5 February1914, 3.
44.For example, Frances Taylor was founder and managing editor ofWoman’s World1921–33, and Florence Taylor became the sole publisher and editor of three construction/engineering periodicals in1928, following the death of her husband George Taylor.Christa Ludlow, “Taylor, Florence Mary (1879–1969),” ADB, accessed March2015,http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/taylor-florence-mary-8754;Maya V. Tucker, “Taylor, Irene Frances (1890–1933),” ADB, accessed March2015,http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/taylor-irene-frances-8761. For analysis of the continuing gender imbalance in senior roles in the Australian press, seeLouise North, “Women’s Struggle for Top Jobs in the News Media,”inSeizing the Initiative: Australian Women Leaders in Politics, Workplaces and Communities, ed.Rosemary Francis,Patricia Grimshaw andAnn Standish(:eScholarship Research Centre, University of Melbourne, 2012), 262–70.
45.Noel Stewart, As I Remember Them(:Artlook Books, 1987), 4–5;Betty Osborn, “Girl Reporter,” The Fifth Estate, RMIT Journalism ezine (December2001), accessed March2015,http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/23203/20020122–0000/fifth.estate.rmit.edu.au/december01/osborn/osborn.htm.
46.Margaret Curtis-Otter interviewed by Hazel de Berg; see alsoOsborn, “Girl Reporter.”
47.Hamilton, “Journalists, Gender, and Workplace Culture,” 111.
48.Full membership was finally granted to women in 1972.Lloyd, Profession: Journalist, 147;Don Angel, The History of the Journalists’ Club(:The Journalists’ Club, 1985), 152–53.
49.For a discussion of the rigidity of sex-role stereotyping in US journalism in the interwar period, seeLinda Lumsden, “‘You’re a Tough Guy, Mary – and a First-Rate Newspaperman’: Gender and Women Journalists in the 1920s and 1930s,” Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 72, no. 4(1995):913–21.
50.Marilyn Lake, “Female Desires: The Meaning of World War II,”inGender and War: Australians at War in the Twentieth Century, ed.Joy Damousi andMarilyn Lake(:Cambridge University Press, 1995), 62.
51. Journalist, September1938, 4.
52.Bonnie Brennen, “Cultural Discourse of Journalists: The Material Conditions of Newsroom Labor,”inHardt andBrennen, Newsworkers, 85.
53. Journalist, 17 April1930, 52.
54. Australasian Journalist, 18 April1927, 60; see also“Tessa Fubbs’s Tragic Death,” Journalist, September1938, 4.
55.Clarke, “Women in the Media,” 496.
56.Coralie Rees interviewed by Hazel de Berg (sound recording), 1968, ORAL TRC 1/359–361, NLA.
57.Paula Poindexter andDustin Harp, “The Softer Side of News,”inWomen, Men and News, ed.Paula Poindexter,Sharon Meraz, andAmy Schmitz Weiss(:Routledge, 2008), 85.
58.Clarke, Pen Portraits, 2–4;May Maxwell, “Plain Speaking,” Journalist, 31 July1936, 10.
59.The journal, which was the official organ of both the AJA and the New Zealand Journalists’ Association, changed its name to theJournalistin 1927.Australasian Journalist, 15 August1919, 136;Heather Roberts, “Mackay, Jessie,” Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, accessed March2015,http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/biographies/2m15/mackay-jessie.
60.“The Kaleidoscope,” Brisbane Courier, 7 September1922, 12;Barbara Lemon andNikki Henningham, “Moore, Winifred (–1952),”the Australian Women’s Register,Australian Women’s Archive Project, accessed March2015,http://www.womenaustralia.info/biogs/AWE2894b.htm.
61.Michael Schudson, The Power of News(:Harvard University Press, 1995), 7–8.
62. Herself, April1929, 16.
63.“Women and Journalists,” Clarence and Richmond Examiner, 5 February1914, 3.
64.North, “Media Print News.”
65.Mary Marlowe, That Fragile Hour(:Angus and Robertson, 1990), 151–52.
66.Deborah Campbell, “From Theatre to Radio: The Popular Career of Mary Marlowe,”inAustralian Popular Culture, ed.Peter Spearritt andDavid Walker(:George Allen & Unwin, 1979), 92.
67. Journalism in the Thirties.
68.Joan W. Scott, “Deconstructing Equality-Versus-Difference: Or, the Uses of Poststructuralist Theory for Feminism,” Feminist Studies 14, no. 1(1988):40.
69. Journalist, 15 June1927, 83; see for example,“A Woman’s Impression: Uniforms Outshine Dress,” Argus, 10 May1927, 19.
70.Helena Studdert, “Women’s Magazines,”inA History of the Book in Australia 1891–1945, ed.Martyn Lyons andJohn Arnold(:University of Queensland Press, 2001), 276–81;Heather Radi, “Jackson, Alice Mabel (1887–1974),” ADB, accessed March2015,http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/jackson-alice-mabel-10597/text18827.
71.Griffen-Foley, “Operating on an Intelligent Level,” 143;Griffen-Foley, House of Packer, 43.
72.Sol Encel,Norman MacKenzie, andMargaret Tebbutt, Women and Society: An Australian Study(:Cheshire, 1974), 72–73.
73.Beaton, “Importance of Women’s Paid Labour,” 86–87.
74.John Curtin, September1942, quoted inIbid., 88.
75.Lloyd, Profession: Journalist, 205–206;Rod Kirkpatrick, “War and Lasting Change: The Battle for Survival on the Provincial Newspaper Front,” eJournalist 1, no. 2(2001), accessed March2015,http://ejournalist.com.au/v1n2/KIRK.pdf.
76.Lloyd, Profession: Journalist, 207.
77.Ibid.
78.Kate Darian-Smith, On the Home Front: Melbourne in Wartime 1939–1945, 2nd ed. (:Oxford University Press, 2009), 61.
79.Lloyd, Profession: Journalist, 209.
80. Supplementary Civilian Register, 5th June, 1943, AustraliainAustralian Bureau of Statistics, Historical Microfiche Series: Statistical Publications Since Federation(:Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1989), 20–007.
81.Lloyd, Profession: Journalist, 217.
82.Andrea Lofthouse andVivienne Smith, Who’s Who of Australian Women(:Methuen Australia, 1982), 54;Journalist, March1944, 6.
83.Walker, Yesterday’s News, 164.
84.Julie Norman, “She’s ‘Woman’s’ Copy Boy,” Woman, 8 January1945, 22;Pat Holmes, “She Photographs the News,” Woman, 12 March1945, 20–21;“Pat Holmes,”The Australian Women’s Register, accessed March2015,www.womenaustralia.info/biogs/AWE3123b.htm.
85.Jack Cannon, “Tales of George Johnston and Geoffrey Hutton,”inThe Argus: Life & Death of a Newspaper, ed.Jim Usher(:Jim Usher, 1999), 33.
86.Jeannine Ann Baker, “Beyond the ‘Woman’s Angle’: Australian Women War Reporters during World War II”(PhD diss.,University of Melbourne, 2013), 237.
87.Ibid., 169–71.
88.K. S. Inglis, This is the ABC: The Australian Broadcasting Commission, 1932–1983(:Black Inc, 2006), 104–105.
89.Marilyn Lake, “The War over Women’s Work,”inA Most Valuable Acquisition, ed.Verity Burgmann andJenny Lee(:McPhee Gribble/Penguin, 1988), 210.
90.Letter from“Browning Off,” Journalist, January1944, 2.
91.Lake, “War over Women’s Work,” 205.
92. Journalist, February1944, 2.
93.Lloyd, Profession: Journalist, 218;Maurine Beasley, “Women and Journalism in World War II: Discrimination and Progress,” American Journalism 12, no. 3(1995):322.
94. Journalist, September1944, 2.
95.Ibid., October1944, 2.
96.Ibid., November1944, 2.
97.Ibid., August1944, 3.
99.Lloyd, Profession: Journalist, 218, 305.
100.Ibid., 242.
101.Susan Mitchell, Tall Poppies: Nine Successful Australian Women Talk to Susan Mitchell(:Penguin, 1984), 34.
102.Justine Lloyd, “Women’s Pages in Australian Print Media from the 1850s,” Media Information Australia 150(2014):63;Barbara Lemon, “Women Journalists in Australian History.”
103.See for example, letter by“Singleton,” Journalist, February1944, 2. The roles of women scientists also expanded during World War II, only to contract in peacetime. SeeCarey, “Departing From Their Sphere?” 181.
104.Justine Lloyd, “Gendering Radio Research: The Circuit of Everyday Culture,”inMaking a Difference: Refereed Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Australia New Zealand Communication Association, Sydney, 2004(:ANZCA, 2004), 63–64;Sandy George, “South Australian Women Journalists and the Struggle for Equal Career Opportunities in Newspaper Journalism,” Cabbages and Kings: Selected Essays in History and Australian Studies 6(1978):14–24;Clarke, Pen Portraits, 253;Julie Rigg andSusan Anthony, “Equal Pay, Low Grades,” Metro Magazine: Media & Education Magazine, no. 37(Spring1976):15.
105.Darian-Smith, On the Home Front, 66–67;Marilyn Lake, “War over Women’s Work,” 211.
106.Rita Dunstan, “Will Servicewomen Want Former Jobs Back?” Sunday Times, 2 May1943(supplement), 3.